Jewish Belief Today

What you'll learn

Describe the structure of the Jewish Scriptures and tradition: Tanakh, Oral Torah, Mishnah and Talmud
Distinguish the main Jewish movements and summarise Maimonides' thirteen principles, rabbinic teaching on sin, repentance and the world to come, and Jewish messianic hope
Explain the history of Christian antisemitism and why Scripture requires us to reject it

Tanakh and Oral Torah

Jewish people call the Hebrew Bible the Tanakh, an acronym of its three parts: Torah (Law, the five books of Moses), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). It contains the same books as the Protestant Old Testament, in a different order, ending with Chronicles. Jesus refers to this threefold shape in Luke 24:44.

Traditional (Rabbinic) Judaism also holds to an Oral Torah: explanations and laws believed to have been given to Moses at Sinai alongside the written Torah and passed down through the generations. The Mishnah tractate Avot opens by tracing this chain: Moses received Torah at Sinai and handed it on to Joshua, the elders, the prophets and the men of the Great Assembly (Avot 1:1).

After the destruction of the Temple in AD 70, this oral tradition was organised in writing. The Mishnah was compiled around AD 200 under Rabbi Judah the Prince. Later rabbis' discussions of the Mishnah (the Gemara) were combined with it to form the Talmud: the Jerusalem Talmud (around AD 400) and the more authoritative Babylonian Talmud (completed around AD 500-600). The Talmud is not a single creed but a vast record of debates on law (halakha) and stories and teaching (aggadah).

What is the Tanakh, and how does it compare with the Protestant Old Testament?Show answer

Tanakh is an acronym for the three parts of the Hebrew Bible: Torah (the five books of Moses), Nevi'im (Prophets) and Ketuvim (Writings). It contains the same books as the Protestant Old Testament, but in a different order, ending with Chronicles. Jesus himself refers to this threefold shape in Luke 24:44.

Torah, Nevi'im, Ketuvim
same books as Protestant OT
different order, ends with Chronicles
Jesus refers to it (Luke 24:44)

Explain in your own words what the Oral Torah is and how it came to be written down.Show answer

Rabbinic Judaism holds that, alongside the written Torah, explanations and laws were given to Moses at Sinai and passed down orally, a chain traced in Mishnah Avot 1:1. After the Temple's destruction in AD 70 this tradition was organised in writing in the Mishnah (around AD 200). Later rabbis' discussions (the Gemara) were joined to it to form the Jerusalem and Babylonian Talmuds, vast records of debate on law (halakha) and story and teaching (aggadah).

believed given at Sinai with written Torah
passed down orally
written in the Mishnah after AD 70
Talmud = Mishnah + Gemara

The main movements

Judaism today is diverse, and many Jewish people are secular or 'cultural', identifying strongly as Jewish by people and history while practising little or no religion.

Orthodox Judaism holds that the written and Oral Torah are divinely given and binding. It ranges from Modern Orthodox (engaged with wider society) to Haredi ('ultra-Orthodox') communities.
Hasidic Judaism is a Haredi movement that began in eighteenth-century Eastern Europe with the Baal Shem Tov, emphasising joyful devotion, mysticism and loyalty to a rebbe. Chabad-Lubavitch is the best-known Hasidic group worldwide.
Conservative (Masorti) Judaism treats halakha as binding but evolving through historical development.
Reform (Progressive or Liberal) Judaism, which began in nineteenth-century Germany, sees the tradition as evolving and gives individual conscience a large role; observance is largely personal choice.
Reconstructionist Judaism views Judaism as the evolving civilisation of the Jewish people.

What is the difference between Orthodox and Reform Judaism in how they view the law, and why should you not assume a Jewish friend is religious?Show answer

Orthodox Judaism holds that both the written and Oral Torah are divinely given and binding. Reform Judaism sees the tradition as evolving and gives individual conscience a large role, so observance is largely a personal choice. Many Jewish people are also secular or cultural, strongly Jewish by people and history but practising little or no religion, so you should ask rather than assume.

Orthodox: written and Oral Torah binding
Reform: evolving tradition, personal choice
many Jews are secular or cultural

Maimonides' thirteen principles

Judaism emphasises practice more than creed, but the most influential summary of belief comes from Moses Maimonides (Rambam, 1138-1204; some sources give his birth as 1135) in his Commentary on the Mishnah (Sanhedrin chapter 10). His thirteen principles, also sung in the hymn Yigdal and recited in the 'Ani Ma'amin' ('I believe') statements, include: God exists; God is one, with a unique unity; God is incorporeal (without body or form); God is eternal; only God is to be worshipped; prophecy is true; Moses is the greatest prophet; the whole Torah was given to Moses; the Torah will not be changed; God knows human deeds; God rewards and punishes; the Messiah will come; and the dead will be raised.

Several of these bear directly on our conversation: God's absolute oneness and incorporeality (which is why the incarnation sounds like idolatry to many Jewish people), and the unchangeable Torah (why the new covenant sounds like abandoning God's law).

Which of Maimonides' principles bear most directly on conversations about Jesus, and why?Show answer

God's absolute oneness and incorporeality (having no body or form) are key, because they explain why the incarnation sounds like idolatry to many Jewish people. The principle that the Torah will not be changed also matters, because it makes the new covenant sound like abandoning God's law. Knowing these helps you understand why Jewish friends react as they do.

God's unique oneness
God has no body
incarnation sounds like idolatry
unchangeable Torah vs new covenant

Sin, repentance and the world to come

Rabbinic Judaism has its own account of sin and forgiveness, and you need to understand it before you explain the gospel. Judaism generally does not teach original sin in the Christian sense (that all humanity is guilty and corrupt in Adam). Instead the rabbis speak of two inclinations in every person, the yetzer ha-ra (the inclination to evil) and the yetzer ha-tov (the inclination to good), and teach that a person can master the evil inclination through Torah and the commandments.

The central answer to sin is teshuvah, 'returning' or repentance. Since the Temple fell, prayer and good deeds are seen as taking the place of sacrifice (lesson 4 returns to this). On the High Holy Days the prayer Unetaneh Tokef declares that repentance, prayer and charity (teshuvah, tefillah, tzedakah) avert the severity of God's decree. The Mishnah teaches that Yom Kippur, the Day of Atonement, atones for sins against God, but for sins against another person only once that person has been reconciled (Yoma 8:9).

On the afterlife, the Mishnah says 'All Israel have a share in the world to come', with some listed exceptions (Sanhedrin 10:1), and the Tosefta adds that the righteous of the nations also have a share (Tosefta Sanhedrin 13:2). Rabbinic tradition holds that Gentiles are bound not by the whole Torah but by seven 'Noahide' commandments (Babylonian Talmud, Sanhedrin 56a). So many Jewish people see no need for a saviour: Jews are called to Torah, and righteous Gentiles need not become Jews. Conversations about Jesus therefore often turn on two questions the Tanakh itself raises: how serious is sin (Jeremiah 17:9; Psalm 130:3), and how does a holy God forgive (Psalm 130:4)?

How does Rabbinic Judaism understand sin, repentance and the world to come, and why does this lead many Jewish people to see no need for a saviour?Show answer

Judaism generally does not teach original sin in the Christian sense; the rabbis speak of an evil and a good inclination, and teach that the evil one can be mastered through Torah. The answer to sin is teshuvah (repentance), with prayer and charity, and Yom Kippur atones for sins against God (Mishnah Yoma 8:9). The Mishnah says all Israel has a share in the world to come, the Tosefta extends this to righteous Gentiles, and Gentiles are bound only by the seven Noahide commandments. So many see no need for a saviour, and the conversation turns on how serious sin is and how a holy God forgives.

no original sin in the Christian sense; two inclinations
teshuvah, prayer and charity
all Israel and righteous Gentiles in the world to come
so the key questions are sin's seriousness and how God forgives

Jewish messianic expectation

In traditional Judaism, the Messiah (Mashiach, 'anointed one') is a human king from David's line who will restore Israel. Maimonides' law code (Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings 11-12) describes him as one who will lead Israel in Torah, fight the wars of the LORD, rebuild the Temple and gather the exiles; if he fails or is killed, he is not the Messiah. Many Jewish people expect an era of universal peace and knowledge of God (Isaiah 2:4; 11:9).

Views vary. Many Reform Jews speak of a messianic age brought about by human effort rather than a personal Messiah. Some Talmudic traditions speak of two figures: Messiah son of Joseph, who is killed (later tradition says in battle), and Messiah son of David, who reigns (Sukkah 52a). Knowing this range keeps you from assuming every Jewish friend holds the same view.

Describe the traditional Jewish expectation of the Messiah, and explain why it helps to know the range of views.Show answer

Traditionally, the Messiah is a human king from David's line who will restore Israel; Maimonides describes him leading Israel in Torah, fighting the LORD's wars, rebuilding the Temple and gathering the exiles, and says that if he fails or is killed he is not the Messiah. But views vary: many Reform Jews speak of a messianic age brought about by human effort, and some Talmudic traditions speak of a slain Messiah son of Joseph and a reigning Messiah son of David (Sukkah 52a). Knowing this range keeps you from assuming every Jewish friend holds the same view.

human Davidic king who restores Israel
Maimonides' criteria
Reform messianic age view
two-Messiah tradition

The church's sin of antisemitism

We must be honest. Influential church leaders preached vicious sermons against Jews, such as John Chrysostom's homilies Against the Jews (386-387). Crusaders massacred Jewish communities in the Rhineland in 1096. The 'blood libel', the lie that Jews murdered Christian children for ritual purposes, appears in England in the twelfth century and spread for centuries. Jews were expelled from England (1290) and Spain (1492). Martin Luther, whose recovery of justification by faith we treasure, wrote On the Jews and Their Lies (1543), urging the burning of synagogues. The Nazis later quoted Luther. Centuries of 'Christ-killer' rhetoric helped prepare the ground for the Holocaust, in which about six million Jews were murdered.

Scripture condemns all of this. Paul says God has not cast away his people (Romans 11:1); the Jewish people are 'beloved for the fathers' sakes' and God's gifts and calling are irrevocable (11:28-29); to them belong 'the adoption, and the glory, and the covenants' and from them Christ came (9:4-5). Gentile believers are warned 'Boast not against the branches' (11:18). Theologically, all of us, Jew and Gentile, put Christ on the cross by our sins, and he laid down his life willingly (John 10:18). Christians differ on how Israel and the church relate, and many Reformed Christians, including many Puritans, have prayed for and expected a future turning of Jewish people to Christ (lesson 4 sets out this in-house debate). But every faithful position must reject contempt for the Jewish people.

Why must Christians be honest about the church's history of antisemitism? Give some examples from this section.Show answer

Influential church leaders and movements did real evil to Jewish people, and honesty is required before we can be heard. Examples include Chrysostom's sermons Against the Jews, the Rhineland massacres of 1096, the blood libel, the expulsions from England and Spain, and Luther's On the Jews and Their Lies, which the Nazis later quoted. Centuries of 'Christ-killer' rhetoric helped prepare the ground for the Holocaust.

Chrysostom and the Crusades
blood libel and expulsions
Luther's 1543 treatise
helped prepare ground for Holocaust

How does Scripture condemn contempt for the Jewish people, and how does the cross answer the 'Christ-killer' charge?Show answer

Paul says God has not cast away his people (Romans 11:1), that they are beloved for the fathers' sakes with an irrevocable calling (11:28-29), that the covenants and Christ himself came from them (9:4-5), and he warns Gentile believers not to boast against the branches (11:18). Theologically, all of us, Jew and Gentile, put Christ on the cross by our sins, and he laid down his life willingly (John 10:18). Whatever view of Israel a Christian holds, every faithful position must reject contempt.

God has not cast away his people
boast not against the branches
all our sins put Christ on the cross
he gave his life willingly

Love and humility in practice

Practically, this means listening before speaking, learning Jewish terms (Shabbat, synagogue, rabbi, kosher, Torah), and never treating a Jewish friend as a project. Acknowledge the history if it comes up; it is often the unspoken barrier. Speak of Yeshua as the Jewish Messiah rather than of 'converting' to a Gentile religion. Remember that a Jewish person who believes in Jesus is still Jewish, and many such believers worship in Messianic congregations. Above all, pray, as Paul did, with heart's desire for Israel's salvation (Romans 10:1).

Example: 'Do Christians think we killed Jesus?'

Rachel: Can I ask you something without it being weird? Growing up I heard that Christians think we killed Jesus.

You: It's not weird, and I'm sorry you heard that. People calling themselves Christians said and did terrible things to Jewish people. That was sin, and I reject it.

Rachel: So what do you actually believe?

You: That Jesus laid down his life willingly (John 10:18), and that my sins put him on the cross as much as anyone's. And Jesus was Jewish, all his first followers were Jewish, and Paul wrote that God has not cast away his people (Romans 11:1).

Rachel: Then why do Christians want Jews to believe in Jesus? It feels like you want us to stop being Jewish.

You: I don't want you to stop being Jewish. I believe Jesus is the Messiah promised in the Jewish Scriptures, and that he offers forgiveness to everyone, me included. Sharing that is the most loving thing I know how to do.

Rachel: I'm not even sure I believe in God.

You: That's fair, and I'm glad you told me. Would you be willing to read one chapter of the Tanakh with me, Isaiah 53, and tell me who you think it's about? No pressure either way.

Rachel: Okay. One chapter.

What does love and humility look like in practice with a Jewish friend?Show answer

Listen before you speak, learn Jewish terms such as Shabbat, rabbi and kosher, and never treat your friend as a project. Acknowledge the history if it comes up, since it is often an unspoken barrier. Speak of Yeshua as the Jewish Messiah rather than of converting to a Gentile religion, remember a Jewish believer is still Jewish, and pray for Israel's salvation as Paul did (Romans 10:1).

listen first, learn terms
acknowledge the history
Yeshua as Jewish Messiah
pray (Romans 10:1)

In their own words

“Moses received the Torah at Sinai and handed it down to Joshua, Joshua to the elders, the elders to the prophets, and the prophets to the men of the Great Assembly.” (Mishnah, Avot 1:1)

“I believe with perfect faith that the Creator is one, with a unity unlike any other, and that he is not a body.” (Maimonides' 13 Principles (2 and 3), Commentary on the Mishnah, Sanhedrin 10; 'Ani Ma'amin')

“I believe with perfect faith in the coming of the Messiah, and though he tarry, I will wait for him every day.” (Maimonides' 12th Principle ('Ani Ma'amin'))

“The Messiah will be a king from David's house who rebuilds the Temple and gathers Israel's exiles; if he does not succeed, or is killed, he is not the promised one.” (Maimonides, Mishneh Torah, Laws of Kings 11:4)

“Judaism is above all about doing: living the commandments, studying Torah, and repairing the world.” (Common emphasis across movements; compare Avot 1:2)

Key texts

Romans 9:1-5: Paul's anguish for his Jewish kinsmen and the privileges that belong to them. Set the tone of every conversation here.
Romans 11:1, 17-18, 28-29: God has not cast away his people; Gentiles must not boast against the natural branches; God's calling is irrevocable. A direct rebuke to antisemitism.
Luke 24:44: Jesus refers to 'the law of Moses, and the prophets, and the psalms', the threefold Tanakh, as pointing to him.
Mark 7:8-13: Jesus distinguishes the commandment of God from human tradition. Important for later discussion of the Oral Torah, but use with gentleness.
Romans 1:16; 10:1: The gospel is to the Jew first, and Paul's heart's desire is Israel's salvation. Evangelism to Jewish people is an act of love, not hostility.

Objections and answers

Try answering each one yourself before you open the response.

“After the Crusades, the Inquisition and the Holocaust, how can you possibly ask a Jew to believe in Jesus?”Show a response

You are right to raise it, and I'm deeply sorry for what was done in the name of Christ. Much of it was evil, and Christians should say so without excuse. But I'd ask you to look at Jesus himself, not at those who betrayed his teaching. He was a Jewish rabbi who told his followers to love their enemies, who wept over Jerusalem, and who prayed for those who crucified him. Every one of his first followers was Jewish. The men who carried out pogroms were disobeying him, not following him. If Jesus is Israel's Messiah, then those who persecuted Jews in his name were attacking his own family. The question is not whether Christians have sinned, but whether Jesus is who he claimed to be.

“Judaism isn't about believing things. It's about how you live. Why do Christians obsess over doctrine?”Show a response

That is a real emphasis in Judaism, and Christians can learn from it: faith that does not change how we live is dead (James 2:17). But Jewish life also rests on beliefs: that God is one, that he spoke at Sinai, that he will send Messiah and raise the dead. Maimonides thought those beliefs important enough to list. Doing and believing belong together. The Tanakh itself says Abraham 'believed in the LORD; and he counted it to him for righteousness' (Genesis 15:6). The question of who the Messiah is matters because it is about who God is and how we are made right with him, which shapes how we live.

“Christians replaced Israel and say God is finished with the Jews. That's antisemitism dressed up as theology.”Show a response

Some Christians have spoken that way, and it has done real harm. But the New Testament says the opposite of 'God is finished with the Jews'. Paul asks, 'Hath God cast away his people? God forbid' (Romans 11:1). He says the gifts and calling of God are irrevocable (11:29) and warns Gentile believers not to be arrogant toward Israel (11:18). Christians differ on the details of Israel's future, but faithful Christians agree that God loves the Jewish people, that the Messiah is Jewish, and that Gentile believers have been grafted into Israel's tree, not the other way around. Anyone who uses theology to despise Jewish people has misunderstood the Bible.

“A Jew who believes in Jesus isn't Jewish anymore. He has left his people and joined the goyim.”Show a response

I understand why it feels that way. For centuries churches often demanded that Jewish believers abandon everything Jewish, and that history is real and shameful. But consider where faith in Yeshua began. Jesus was a Jew, his apostles were Jews, and the first church in Jerusalem was entirely Jewish (Acts 2). Paul, years after believing, still said 'I also am an Israelite, of the seed of Abraham, of the tribe of Benjamin' (Romans 11:1). In Acts 21 there were thousands of Jewish believers who were 'zealous of the law'. Trusting the Messiah promised in the Tanakh is not joining a foreign religion; it is receiving Israel's own King. Many Jewish believers today worship in Messianic congregations and keep Jewish customs freely. A Jewish person who believes in Jesus is still Jewish.

“Maimonides was clear: if a would-be Messiah is killed, he is not the Messiah. Jesus was killed. End of discussion.”Show a response

Maimonides is a giant of Jewish thought, and his criteria are a serious Jewish view, so I don't dismiss them. But he wrote in the twelfth century, and Jewish tradition before him was not unanimous. The Talmud speaks of a Messiah son of Joseph who is slain (Sukkah 52a), so a killed messianic figure was not foreign to rabbinic thought. More importantly, the Tanakh itself is our final authority, and it seems to expect exactly this: the servant of Isaiah 53 is 'cut off out of the land of the living', yet afterwards 'shall see his seed' and 'prolong his days' (53:8, 10). Daniel 9:26 says 'Messiah shall be cut off, but not for himself'. Christians believe Jesus was killed and then raised, and will return to finish what remains. Would you read Isaiah 53 with me?

Written task

A Jewish colleague mentions that her grandparents survived the Holocaust and asks, half-joking, 'So are you going to try to convert me?' Write a 250-350 word response that acknowledges the history of Christian antisemitism honestly, shows that you understand something of her Jewish identity and tradition, and explains why you would share your faith in Yeshua out of love rather than contempt.

Hand this in to Mr Scott. He will look for:

Acknowledges specific historical wrongs (e.g. Chrysostom, the Crusades, Luther, the Holocaust) without defensiveness
Explicitly rejects antisemitism from Scripture (e.g. Romans 9:1-5; 11:1, 18, 28-29)
Shows accurate understanding of Jewish identity and diversity (not assuming she is religious)
Presents Jesus as the Jewish Messiah, not a Gentile import
Is warm, humble and free of pressure or stereotypes